REMINDING PEOPLE OF THEIR RELIGIOUS BELIEF SYSTEM REDUCES HOSTILITY

Few topics can prove more divisive than religion, with some insisting it promotes compassion, selflessness and generosity, and others arguing that it leads to intolerance, isolation and even violence.

New research conducted at York University, published in the Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, may shed some light on religion's actual influence on believers -- and the news is positive.

"Based on our premise that most people's religious beliefs are non-hostile and magnanimous, we hypothesized that being reminded of religious beliefs would normally promote less hostile reactions to the kinds of threats in everyday life that usually heighten hostility," says researcher Karina Schumann, the article's lead author, now a postdoctoral fellow at Stanford University.

To test this hypothesis, participants either received a simple reminder of their religious belief system ("which religious beliefs system do you identify with?") or not. They were then exposed to either threatening experiences (such as thinking about their own death or failing at an academic assignment) or not. They were then given a chance to judge and assign punishments for transgressors, criminals and worldview critics.

Across nine different experiments with 910 participants, the results consistently supported the hypothesis for Christians, Jews, Muslims and Hindus alike. The religiously reminded were significantly less hostile and punitive in the threatening circumstances than the non-reminded participants were (there were no effects of the religious reminders among the non-threatened participants).

"Our research suggests that people generally associate their religious beliefs with Golden Rule ideals of forgiveness and forbearance, and that they turn to them when the chips are down, in threatening circumstances," says York U psychology professor Ian McGregor, the article's second author. "This research contributes to the current dialogue on religion by demonstrating that even brief religious belief reminders not accompanied by any explicit beliefs or injunctions tend to promote more magnanimous, less hostile choices in threatening circumstances."

Though the researchers say the link between religion and magnanimity may seem surprising given that news headlines so often focus on terrorist attacks and other atrocities committed in the name of religion, their results suggest that for most people, the influence of religion may be more positive than what is often portrayed in the media.

"Part of the reason for our magnanimity finding could be that in our research we focused on religious ideals, whereas extremist groups may often be more focused on intergroup rivalries and coalitions than the core religious ideals of love and forgiveness," says Schumann. "Future research is needed to determine whether reminders of religious belief can also foster magnanimity in non-Western countries, among less educated individuals, and in the context of high-stakes conflicts in which transgressions are committed by others with competing religious convictions."

AUDITORY SYSTEM THE RUFFLING EFFECT OF RUMBLE

Barely perceptible low-frequency signals nevertheless activate measurable responses in our auditory circuits. Neurobiologists at Ludwig-Maximilians-Universitaet (LMU) in Munich have now characterized the remarkable impact of low-frequency sounds on the inner ear

The human auditory system appears to be poorly adapted to the perception of low-frequency sound waves, as hearing thresholds become markedly higher for frequencies lower than about 250 Hz. Yet sensory cells do react to pressure waves with frequencies below 100 Hz, as revealed by the fact that such signals actually evoke detectable micromechanical responses in nerve cells in the inner ear, as LMU neurobiologists now report in the journal Royal Society Open Science.

Sources of low-frequency signals are a prominent feature of technologically advanced societies like our own. Wind turbines, air-conditioning systems and heat pumps, for instance, can generate such sounds. Hearing thresholds in this region of the acoustic spectrum vary from one person to the next. "But the assumption that the ear is unresponsive to low-frequency sounds because these are seldom consciously perceived is actually quite false. The ear indeed reacts to very low-frequency signals," says Dr. Markus Drexl of LMU. In collaboration with researchers led by Professor Benedikt Grothe (Head of the Division of Neurobiology in LMU's Department of Biology II) and a team based at Munich University Medical Center, Drexl has carried out a laboratory study which shows that low-frequency sounds, though virtually imperceptible, actually have a surprisingly strong effect on sensory cells in the inner ear.

Low-frequency hum stimulates the cochlea The new study is based on data collected from 21 experimental subjects with normal hearing, whose ears were exposed to a 30-Hz tone for 90 seconds at a sound-pressure level equivalent to 80 decibels. To determine how the inner ear responded to the signal, the researchers took advantage of a phenomenon referred to as spontaneous otoacoustic emissions (SOAEs). SOAEs are scarcely perceptible acoustic signals which are produced by the inner ear in the absence of overt stimulation, and can be detected with a sensitive microphone inserted in the ear canal.

"It turns out that low-frequency sounds have a clearly definable modulatory influence on spontaneous otoacoustic emissions," says Drexl. Following exposure to the 30-Hz signal for 90 seconds, the subjects' SOAEs exhibited slow oscillations in frequency and level, which persisted for up to 120 seconds. "Strikingly, the effect of the low-frequency stimulus on the cochlea persists for longer than the duration of the stimulus itself," Drexl points out. Further experiments will probe the possibility that this phenomenon may be linked to noise-induced auditory damage, one of the most common causes of hearing impairment in industrialized countries.

The Peripheral Nervous System Vid

 Today's video is the second of three excellent videos concerning neuropathy, delivered by Todd Levine. The first appeared yesterday and the third will appear tomorrow. They are absolutely worth watching, although you will need to settle down comfortably because they are 30 minutes long. They include information that is of value to everyone living with neuropathy; whatever the type and whatever the cause.


The Peripheral Nervous System
Todd Levine Clinical Assistant Professor, University of Arizona


  
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pcdKhKSLca8#t=18

IMMUNE SYSTEM OF NEW BORN BABIES STRONGER THAN PREVIOUSLY THOUGHT

Contrary to what was previously thought, newborn immune T cells may have the ability to trigger an inflammatory response to bacteria, according to a new study led by King's College London. Although their immune system works very differently to that of adults, babies may still be able to mount a strong immune defense, finds the study published in the journal Nature Medicine.

Our immune system is made up of several different types of immune cells, including neutrophils which play an important role in the frontline defense against infection, and lymphocytes: B cells which produce antibodies, and T cells that target cells infected with viruses and microbes.

Up to now, it was generally believed that babies have an immature immune system that doesn't trigger the same inflammatory response normally seen in adults. Although babies need to protect themselves from the harmful pathogens they are exposed to from birth, it was thought that their T cells were suppressed to some extent to prevent inflammatory damage to the developing child. Sceptical of this notion, the King's-led study set out to characterize the properties of T cells, examining very small samples of blood in twenty-eight highly premature babies, as they developed over the first few weeks of life.

The team discovered that whilst T cells in newborn babies are largely different to those in adults, it is not because they are immunosuppressed; rather, they manufacture a potent anti-bacterial molecule known as IL8 that has not previously been considered a major product of T cells, and that activates neutrophils to attack the body's foreign invaders.

Dr Deena GibbonsDeena Gibbons, lead author in the Department of Immunobiology at King's College London, says: "We found that babies have an in-built anti-bacterial defense mechanism that works differently to adults, but nevertheless may be effective in protecting them. This may also be a mechanism by which the baby protects itself in the womb from infections of the mother. The next stage of our work will be to better understand the pathways that result in the immune cells of newborns being so different to those in adults."

This T cell activity could become a target for future treatments aimed at boosting the immune system of neonates in intensive care, where infection is a major risk for morbidity and mortality. Premature babies are also at serious risk of developing inflammatory diseases such as necrotising enterocolitis (NEC), where severe inflammation destroys tissues in the gut. NEC is the most common gastrointestinal surgical emergency in preterm babies, with mortality rates of around 15 to 30 per cent in the UK.

Repairing The Bodys Nerve Insulation System

Today's post from sciencedaily.com (see link below) may well prove to be a very important one in the ongoing search for effective nerve damage treatment. This is not research into how we can reduce the symptoms but looks at how we may be able to prevent neuropathy in the first place. Many neuropathies occur when the insulation around the nerve (the myelin sheath) is damaged, thus short-circuiting the nervous system with the consequences we all know about. This insulation is created by Schwann cells and if these cells are disrupted or damaged by genetic dysfunction, the myelin insulation can't be formed. This dysfunction, leading to too few, or too many Schwann cells is caused by the so-called HIPPO-TAZ/YAP and Gαs-protein feedback circuit and it is here that new studies are being focused to make sure that myelin continues to be produced. In this sort of article, you can quickly be sucked into the 'science terminology' and lose understanding but for the casual reader, it basically means they've discovered what's disrupting the formation of insulation around the nerves and are working on that area to restore balance. If your home electrical circuit is disrupted, it's often due to short circuiting caused by damaged insulation; so you repair the insulation around the wires. That's basically it and is what they're trying to do in the body's nervous system. Promoting myelination is the aim. That they're closer to finding a solution is good news for the future.

HIPPO's molecular balancing act helps nerves not short circuit. Study offers clue to possible therapy for peripheral nerve disorders 
Date:April 26, 2017 Source:Cincinnati Children's Hospital Medical Center

Scientists write in Nature Communications it may be possible to therapeutically fine tune a constantly shifting balance of molecular signals to ensure the body's peripheral nerves are properly insulated and functioning normally. In a study published April 26, they suggest this may be a way to treat neuropathies or prevent the development of peripheral nerve sheath tumors.

With wavy channels that almost resemble a school of rainbow-colored fish, this microscopic image shows molecular signs of insulation forming on the sciatic nerve of a 14-day old mouse. Schwann cells that form a protective coating around peripheral nerves -- the myelin sheath -- are color-coded with antibodies that identify the presence of proteins in the HIPPO-TAZ/YAP and G?s-protein molecular feedback circuit. The proteins are needed for Schwann cells to begin making the myelin sheath at the right time.

Credit: Cincinnati Children's

 

The study was led by researchers at Cincinnati Children's Hospital Medical Center. It sought to identify the genetic and molecular networks that control the balanced proliferation and differentiation of Schwann cells in peripheral nerves -- a question that so far has remained unanswered. Schwann cells form a protective myelin sheath around nerves, which acts as insulation to ensure rapid transmission of neural signals to limbs and other parts of the body.

The researchers discovered that genetic dysfunction in what they call the HIPPO-TAZ/YAP and Gαs-protein feedback circuit disrupts the balanced production of Schwann cells.

If Schwann cell numbers are too sparse and widely-spaced, insufficient insulating myelin forms around nerves, leading to nerve insulation defects in the peripheral nerves of laboratory mice. An overabundance of Schwann cells in people with the genetic disorder neurofibromatosis 1 and 2 (who have mutations in the NF1 or NF2 tumor suppressor gene) has been linked to development of nerve sheath tumors.

"These findings will lead to future studies aimed at modulating or fine tuning the dynamic balance between YAP/TAZ and Gαs, and this may lead to new therapeutic strategies," said Q. Richard Lu, PhD, co-lead investigator and scientific director of the Brain Tumor Center at Cincinnati Children's. "These strategies would focus on promoting myelination in the peripheral nervous system for neuropathic disease or inhibiting Schwann cell over-proliferation that occurs during formation of peripheral nerve sheath tumors like neurofibromas."

Collaborating on the study was co-lead investigator Mei Xin, PhD, and co-first authors Yaqi Deng, PhD and Lai Man Natalie Wu, PhD (all in the Division of Experimental Biology and Cancer Biology at Cincinnati Children's).

The researchers stress that, because the study was conducted with mice, additional research is required before it can confirmed whether the data will apply directly to human health.

Affects 20 million people

An estimated 20 million people in the United States have some form of peripheral neuropathy, according to the National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke.

The condition develops as a result of damage to the peripheral nervous system, a large network that transmits information between the central nervous system to other parts of the body. Symptoms can range from numbness, tingling, pricking sensations or muscle weakness. Some neuropathic conditions can become quite severe leading to paralysis.

HIPPO Pathway

The HIPPO molecular pathway works as a tumor suppressor that helps control organ development and size in most organisms, from fruit flies to humans. It exerts this control by regulating cell proliferation and transformation into specific organ cell types. When the pathway becomes dysregulated -- as in during genetic mutation -- it helps drive the development of tumors.

To understand how the HIPPO pathway controls Schwann cell proliferation and myelination, the researchers used genome-wide screens. This allowed them to identify specific genes that are turned on or off by co-regulators of gene function called TAZ and YAP in the nucleus of developing mouse Schwann cells. The molecules -- YAP (Yes-associated protein) and TAZ (PDZ-binding motif) -- are critical regulators of downstream genes and proteins that are important for the expansion and specification of myelin-forming Schwann cells.

The researchers also performed a transcriptome analysis comparing peripheral nerves with or without TAZ/YAP. This tells researchers which genes or signaling pathways are controlled by TAZ/YAP.

Gene occupancy and transcriptome tests revealed that, in immature Schwann cells, TAZ suppresses the expression of the gene that encodes the Gαs protein. When a Schwann cell is reaching maturity, the Gαs protein opposes the activities of TAZ and YAP. This decelerates cell expansion and allows the cells to develop and form myelin around peripheral nerves.

Combined, the molecular processes involving the HIPPO/TAZ/YAP and Gαs feedback circuit indicate it acts as a fulcrum that balances Schwann cell proliferation and differentiation in peripheral nerves, according to the authors. The finding also opens up new therapeutic avenues that can modulate and fine tune the processes to treat associated medical conditions.

Story Source:

Materials provided by Cincinnati Children's Hospital Medical Center. Note: Content may be edited for style and length.

Journal Reference: 
 
Yaqi Deng, Lai Man Natalie Wu, Shujun Bai, Chuntao Zhao, Haibo Wang, Jincheng Wang, Lingli Xu, Masahide Sakabe, Wenhao Zhou, Mei Xin, Q. Richard Lu. A reciprocal regulatory loop between TAZ/YAP and G-protein Gαs regulates Schwann cell proliferation and myelination. Nature Communications, 2017; 8: 15161 DOI: 10.1038/ncomms15161

https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2017/04/170426092338.htm  

Neuropathy In The Genital Urinary System

Today's post from blog.diabetv.com (see link below) looks at a subject that many neuropathy patients may literally keep 'below their belts' thanks to societal embarrassment but it's surprisingly common, especially with people living with autonomic neuropathy over which they have no control. It's about so-called genito-urinary neuropathy which basically means, dysfunction of your bladder, digestive system and sexual performance. It's a useful post especially if you're a bit older because many of you will put the symptoms down to ageing and normal reduction of function due to age. It may not be that, so it's worth talking to your doctor or neurologist to see what, if anything can be done. Worth a read for all neuropathy patients (men and women). By the way, the article suggests that it only affects those with diabetes - absolutely not true - it can apply to all people living with neuropathy.

WHAT IS GENITOURINARY NEUROPATHY?
Posted by Dr. Leonel Porta

  Genitourinary neuropathy is another major forms of Autonomic Neuropathy that occurs in men and women with diabetes mellitus. The exact prevalence is unknown but in most of these patients are asymptomatic, however it is believed that up to half of the diabetics suffering from complications can have it.

The involvement of the lumbo-sacral innervation alters the proper functioning of the urogenital system, causing manifestations such as Neurogenic Bladder and Sexual Dysfunction.

Neurogenic Bladder and Diabetic Cystopathy: It is characterized by the loss of sensation of a full bladder due to decreased sensitivity to bladder distention. One in every two diabetics suffer from it. Symptoms usually appear in a progressively unpleasant way. The main symptom is a decreased frequency of urination, especially at night, with an increased volume of the first morning urination above 400mL. Later manifestations are an incomplete emptying of the bladder, bladder distention, urinary stasis and, in rarer cases, urinary incontinence.

Neurogenic bladder is a hypotonic bladder, and the presence of residual urine in it , predisposes to recurrent urinary tract infections, which can lead to long-term kidney failure. Diagnosis can be made by an ultrasound that shows the residual urine or by Flow Cystometry, which evaluates the neural pathways. In many cases a mechanical voiding of the bladder using urinary catheters probes is advisable as a relief measure.

Male sexual dysfunction: This is one of the most common clinical signs of Genitourinary Neuropathy and it is often the first manifestation of Autonomic Neuropathy, being three times more likely to be occurring in diabetics. The cause is multifactorial and includes neuropathy, vascular disease, metabolic abnormalities, and psychological factors. It is based on the alteration of erection and ejaculation. Erectile Dysfunction is defined as the consistent inability to achieve and maintain an erection for a satisfactory sexual intercourse. It must happen repeatedly and never change during several months and occur in more than 50% of the sexual intercourse encounters to be considered as such. Impotence, as it is known colloquially, can progress from partial to total within a few years until it becomes familiarly irreversible.

Treatment for Erectile Dysfunction has been previously cited in DiabeTV. It includes dietary habits changes, psychological counseling, administration of drugs such as Sildenafil, Tadalafil or Vardenafil and, ultimately, to the placement a prostheses within the penis. On the other hand, ejaculatory disorders are less frequent. This is caused by alterations in the sympathetic nervous system and must be treated under strict medical supervision.

Female sexual dysfunction. It is a decreased sexual desire (libido), anorgasmia (lack of orgasm), and dyspareunia (painful intercourse) due to inadequate vaginal lubrication. We invite you to read the article about how to overcome vaginal dryness posted by DiabeTV.

Genitourinary Neuropathy is one of those complications of diabetes that can be prevented if the basic recommendations known by most diabetic patients are followed. A balanced diet, physical activity, and an adequate glycemic control, together with a routine medical evaluation can spare you from multiple diabetic complications. Those can make your life miserable, lower your self-esteem and affect your quality of life.

http://blog.diabetv.com/what-is-genitourinary-neuropathy/

Sensus System For Nerve Pain Now FDA Approved

Today's short post from medscape.com (see link below), talks about one of the latest devices to use electrical nerve stimulation to help with neuropathy pain. The Sensus Pain Management System has now been approved by the American FDA, which is generally a sign that something has been tested for quality and effectiveness. Finding any treatment that avoids, or at least reduces the need for more pills and tablets can only be a good thing...providing it works and is financially viable for most people. That has yet to be established but if you yourself have been treated with the Sensus system, please share your experiences with other readers of the blog by using the contact button at the top of the page, or the comments button under each article.

FDA Clears Sensus for Painful Diabetic Neuropathy

Emma Hitt, PhD  Dec 07, 2012

The Sensus Pain Management System, manufactured by NeuroMetrix, has been granted 510(k) clearance by the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA), the company announced.

The device is intended to relieve and manage symptoms of chronic intractable pain in the lower leg and foot that can occur with diabetic neuropathy. The device is a transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulator and is worn on the upper calf under clothing.

"FDA clearance of the Sensus electrode represents the last step in the regulatory pathway for the Sensus Pain Management System," noted Shai N. Gozani, MD, PhD, president and chief executive officer of NeuroMetrix. "We believe that physicians treating patients with painful diabetic neuropathy, a severe and debilitating form of chronic pain, will find Sensus to be a useful therapeutic option."

The company states that they will be launching the device commercially before the end of the year.

http://www.medscape.com/viewarticle/775812

The Human Nervous System Part Two

Today's post from helium.com (see link below) is the second part of a description of the human nervous system. Today's description is by a different author and you may notice one or two repetitions of information provided yesterday but that just helps to fix it in your brain. It's all very useful information and most certainly aids understanding of what your nervous system does and where it's going wrong if you have neuropathy. Both parts worth a read.
 

An overview on the human nervous system
by Jose Juan Gutierrez : Created on: October 23, 2011

 
The nervous system is the control center for all the processes occurring inside and outside of the human body, including all mental activity, such as learning, thinking, and memorizing. The nervous system monitors the organs, controls the movements of the muscles, processes data, and detects changes in temperature, among many other functions. The nervous system performs all these functions through the use of sensory receptors. Along with the endocrine system, the nervous system is responsible for maintaining homeostasis.

An overview on the human nervous system:

The nervous system is a communication network of nerve fibers, surrounded by a fatty substance known as myelin, and connective tissue that is constantly sending messages in and out of the human body. The complex activities performed by the nervous system include the motor, integrative, and sensory functions. The nervous system is classified into two subdivisions: the central nervous system (CNS), consisting of the brain and spinal cord; and the peripheral nervous system (PNS), consisting of nerves and ganglia (nerve cells outside the CNS).

The spinal cord and the brain form part of the CNS. The CNS is encased in bone for protection; the brain in the cranial vault and the spinal cord in the vertebral canal. The spinal cord is a long tube of nerve tissue that is located in the hollow channels of the vertebrae. The brain and spinal cord are surrounded by cerebro-spinal fluid (CSF) which protects the brain and spinal cord from injury. Membranes known as meninges prevent CSF from leaking to the outside.

The peripheral nervous system includes the nerve fibers that spread out from the spinal cord and the brain. These nerve fibers form the communication network between the CNS and the various organs of the body. The peripheral nervous system is subdivided into the somatic and the autonomic nervous systems. The somatic nervous system comprises the nerve fibers that connect to the skin and muscles and involves conscious activities. The autonomic nervous system includes the nerve fibers that communicate the CNS to organs, including the intestines, stomach, glands, and the heart, and involves unconscious actions.

Neurons are the nerve cells that carry out the functions of the nervous system; a neuron consists of a cell body (soma), a single axon, and one or more dendrites; neurons are classified as afferent, efferent, and inter-neurons; afferent (sensory) neurons carry signals from the peripheral sense receptors

to the CNS. Efferent (motor) neurons carry out signals from the CNS to organs, such as glands, or muscles. Inter-neurons (integration) neurons serve as connections between afferent and efferent neurons within the CNS.
Millions of sensory receptors detect changes occurring inside and outside of the body (sensory function); from the outside, they can detect changes, such as light, temperature, and sound; from the inside, they can detect carbon dioxide concentration, pH levels, and blood pressure. This information is known as sensory input; sensory input is changed into electrical signals (nerve impulses) which travel to the brain; once in the brain, these signals generate memory, thought, or decisions in a process known as (integration).

 

 Depending on the sensory input and integration, the nervous system reacts by signaling glands to secrete hormones, or muscles to contract; this is in response to an instruction from the nervous system, therefore, the muscles and glands are called effectors. This is known as the motor function of the nervous system.

Spinal reflex arc is a unit of the nervous system where responses to stimuli do not require conscious thought and as a consequence reactions occur more quickly than if the stimuli had travelled to the brain centers. There are two distinct types of reflex arc: one is autonomic reflex arc (having an effect on inner organs); and somatic reflex arc (having an effect on the muscles).

Al the systems in the human body are important to maintain the body in optimum functioning. The single movement of one leg involves the muscular, circulatory, and skeletal system; however it´s the nervous system which coordinates the activities of all these systems and without it, the human body wouldn´t be able to perform all its daily functions.

http://www.helium.com/items/2244685-an-overview-on-the-human-nervous-system

Basics Of The Nervous System In Simple Terms Pt 1

Today's informative post from sunlightinwinter.com (see link below) is the first in a series of articles by this author explaining how the nervous system works. As he says; we can research all we like but sooner or later we'll come across terms we don't understand. In the main, that's not a problem because, if we get the idea of an explanation, that can often be enough to help us learn to live with it but when it comes to the basics about nerves and their problems, we really should try to build up an information source, so that we can at least talk intelligently to our doctors about what is happening to us when it goes wrong. This article goes a long way to providing exactly that sort of resource and is well-worth a read.
 

Nervous System Basics (Part 1)
Posted on February 8, 2015 by sunlight in winter

As I’ve said time and time again, I really feel that people living with chronic pain/fibromyalgia can benefit immensely from learning about how the body works. Even the feeling that you are just beginning to understand the complex processes making up your experience of pain can help give you a sense of control over things.

And reading about the new research that is being done on pain, even if you don’t completely understand every word, can sometimes give you a reason to remain hopeful at times when you’re feeling stuck.

With that in mind, I’m going to back way up and publish a post I’ve been meaning to write for a very long time. Here I’ll outline a few key terms and concepts about how the nervous system works. Hopefully it will be helpful to anyone who is interested in learning more about pain.

So let’s get started.

The nervous system can be divided into two main branches.

The central nervous system consists of the brain and spinal cord, and is shown in pink in the diagram above.

The peripheral nervous system consists of all the nerves in the body, and is shown in yellow.

The brain is the command center for your body, and it is where your experience of pain is processed. It is where you think consciously, but it also controls many unconscious functions, such as breathing, your sense of balance, and the ability to orient your body in space.

The spinal cord is the relay system for messages between the brain and the peripheral nerves. (It can also play a role in affecting how strong your ultimate experience of pain is, but we’ll talk more about that later).

The peripheral nerves have two main jobs:

Sensory: Sensory nerves send signals to the central nervous system about what you are feeling physically. When you stub your toe or get a papercut, it’s sensory nerves that send that signal up your spinal cord to your brain.

Motor: This is (to me) a kind of funny scientific word. It really just means “movement.” The motor nerves of the peripheral nervous system are what tell your muscles to move, as well as tell your organs to perform specific functions.

Pain

When people talk about how pain works, they are generally talking about the relationship between the sensory nerves, the spinal cord, and the brain. The sensory nerves send signals up to the brain about any damage that may have occurred, and the brain decides how to interpret those signals.

But Pain is a Two-Way Street

Historically, people considered this pain pathway to be a very consistent, cut-and-dry system that always worked the same way every time. If a person was in a lot of pain, they had to have a lot of physical damage/injury. If they weren’t in very much pain, they must not have a very serious physical problem.

However, scientific advances in the past few decades have shown that pain is actually much more complicated than that. It turns out that the severity of a person’s pain does not always reflect accurately the amount of physical injury they have experienced.

You can have soldiers in battle who do not even realize they’ve been shot– their peripheral nerves are sending very strong messages of “damage” up to their brains, but their brains tune those signals out because they need to focus on survival.

Conversely, you can have people with chronic pain, who– due to a number of potential factors—can experience excruciating pain in response to a very minor injury, or in fact no injury at all.

Central Sensitization

At the risk of boring my long-time readers, let me define one of my most favorite terms again. Central sensitization is the process responsible for this last phenomenon, where people can develop an increased sensitivity to pain.

The term refers to a series of changes that can take place in the central nervous system (the brain and the spinal cord) which can ultimately make a person much more sensitive to pain. In some cases, central sensitization can become a self-perpetuating phenomenon, in which a person continues to feel pain long after their initial injury has healed.

Central sensitization is such a fascinating topic. There is still much research to be done on it, but so far it is believed to play a role in such seemingly-diverse conditions as fibromyalgia, chronic fatigue syndrome, irritable bowel syndrome, temporomandibular disorder, and many others.

One Last Thing

When I first started trying to understand the amazing, interesting new research that’s being done in pain, I kept hitting this one term that mystified me. The dorsal horn. What the heck is a dorsal horn? I was so confused by this for a long time, and it really held me back from understanding a lot of articles.

Turns out, the term dorsal horn refers to an area in the back of the spinal cord. The back of the spinal cord is where the sensory nerves meet with the spinal cord, so their messages can continue on up to the brain. It’s pretty simple actually– the sensory nerves connect with the back of the spinal cord, and motor nerves connect in the front. So when people talk about the dorsal horn, they are talking about where sensory information is entering the spinal cord and then being relayed on up to the brain.

For more info

If you want a really great overview of the divisions of the nervous system, I highly recommend this video.


Conclusion

I really hope you’ve enjoyed this post! As you can see, it’s written in a very different tone, and for a very different target audience, than my previous post. I’m still in the process of figuring out what type of post works best on this blog. I really want to be able to write about advanced scientific concepts for every day people, and I’ll probably be trying to figure out the best way to do that for a while. Your thoughts/comments/suggestions are always welcome, so please let me know if you have any! Thanks!

https://sunlightinwinter.com/2015/02/08/nervous-system-basics/

The HIV Virus Itself Can Attack The Nervous System At An Early Stage

Today's post from the always reliable sciencedaily.com (see link below) reports something that will be of no surprise to people living with HIV across the world and that is that neuropathy very often appears from the early stages of infection. This gives proof to the theory that the virus itself attacks the nervous system. The accepted knowledge is that neuropathy in HIV is linked to older toxic HIV drugs and doctors are still continually surprised that people arrive in their surgeries with neuropathic symptoms, despite being on the most modern HIV medication combinations. The study mentioned here claims that the symptoms appear pre-medication treatment and generally disappear after treatment begins. However, there has to be some considerable doubt about this claim! Neuropathic symptoms don't disappear and nerve damage is, at the moment, generally irreversible. People living with HIV generally see a worsening of their symptoms over a period of time and end up on the treadmill of drugs designed to suppress the discomfort but not cure it. Perhaps the most relevant finding of the study is that after contracting HIV, many people will show signs of nerve damage, with all the symptoms that we're familiar with. The idea that this is linked to the older drug regimes is somewhat outdated but not totally incorrect and modern HIV drugs can cause nerve damage too. The problem is that it's clear that the HIV virus itself attacks nerve cells and especially mitochondria and although HIV medications (old or new) don't help, they're not exclusively responsible for neuropathy in HIV patients.

Neurologic symptoms common in early HIV infection
Much more extensive, though milder than previously thought 
Date:June 13, 2016 Source:University of California - San Francisco

A team led by researchers from UCSF and Yale has found that half of people newly infected with HIV experience neurologic issues. These neurologic findings are generally not severe and usually resolve after participants started anti-retroviral therapy.

"We were surprised that neurologic findings were so pervasive in participants diagnosed with very recent HIV infection," said study lead author, Joanna Hellmuth, MD, MHS, clinical fellow in UCSF's Department of Neurology. "While the findings were mild, it is clear that HIV affects the nervous system within days of infection. Since the majority of these neurologic issues were resolved with treatment, our study reinforces recommendations that people at risk for HIV test often and start antiretroviral treatment immediately if they are infected."

The research will be published in the June 10, 2016, issue of Neurology, the medical journal of the American Academy of Neurology.

The team examined 139 participants in the RV254 Thai cohort who were recently infected with HIV. The time from infection to entry into the study ranged from 3 to 56 days with a median of 19 days. At this stage, participants would not test positive on the common antibody tests for HIV since they have not been infected long enough for a robust specific immune response to take place. Fifty-three percent had neurologic findings, with a third experiencing cognitive deficits, a quarter having motor issues, and nearly 20 percent experiencing neuropathy. Many experienced more than one symptom. One participant was diagnosed with Guillain-Barré Syndrome, the only severe case found in the cohort.

"In the early days of the epidemic in San Francisco, approximately 10 percent of patients with recent HIV infection presented with dramatic neurological disease. But that was likely due to patients coming in early because of the severity of symptoms they were experiencing. The Thai cohort has given us an opportunity to look at a broad range of newly infected patients, analyze their neurological functioning systematically and follow them over time. We are gaining deeper insights into the degree to which early HIV affects the nervous system," said study senior author, Serena Spudich, MD, Yale associate professor of neurology.

All participants were offered and commenced antiretroviral treatment at diagnosis. Ninety percent of the issues present at diagnosis were resolved after one month of treatment, but 9 percent of the participants had neurologic symptoms that were still not resolved six months after starting therapy. In addition, neurological symptoms were associated with higher levels of HIV found in participants' blood.

The study participants underwent extensive neurologic assessments. Self reported symptoms were correlated with objective neuropsychological testing. In addition, a quarter of participants opted to undergo a lumbar puncture and almost half of the patients agreed to undergo a MRI.

"This is one of the first comprehensive studies scrutinizing the involvement of the nervous system in early infection. Since we have been able to maintain the cohort for five years now, we will be able to study whether there are any persistent abnormalities that need to be addressed. Additionally, the ubiquity of symptoms in early infection found in this study reinforces the need for the brain to be considered as a compartment containing latent HIV as we design cure studies," said study co-author, Victor Valcour, MD, PhD, UCSF professor of neurology.

Story Source:

The above post is reprinted from materials provided by University of California - San Francisco. The original item was written by Jeff Sheehy. Note: Materials may be edited for content and length.

Journal Reference:
Joanna Hellmuth, James L.K. Fletcher, Victor Valcour, Eugène Kroon, Jintanat Ananworanich, Jintana Intasan, Sukalaya Lerdlum, Jared Narvid, Mantana Pothisri, Isabel Allen, Shelly J. Krebs, Bonnie Slike, Peeriya Prueksakaew, Linda L. Jagodzinski, Suwanna Puttamaswin, Nittaya Phanuphak, Serena Spudich. Neurologic signs and symptoms frequently manifest in acute HIV infection. Neurology, 2016; 10.1212/WNL.0000000000002837 DOI: 10.1212/WNL.0000000000002837

https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2016/06/160613105753.htm