HOW THE FRUIT FLY COULD HELP US SNIFF OUT DRUGS AND BOMBS

A fly's sense of smell could be used in new technology to detect drugs and bombs, new University of Sussex research has found.

Brain scientist Professor Thomas Nowotny was surprised to find that the 'nose' of fruit flies can identify odours from illicit drugs and explosive substances almost as accurately as wine odour, which the insects are naturally attracted to because it smells like their favourite food, fermenting fruit.

Published today (15 October 2014) in the journal Bioinspiration and Biomimetics, the study brings scientists closer to developing electronic noses (e-noses) that closely replicate the sensitive olfactory sense of animals.

The hope is that such e-noses will be much more sensitive and much faster than the currently commercially available e-noses that are typically based on metal-oxide sensors and are very slow, compared to a biological nose.

Professor Nowotny, Professor of Informatics at the University of Sussex, led the study alongside researchers from Monash University and CSIRO in Australia. He said: "Dogs can smell drugs and people have trained bees to detect explosives. Here we are looking more for what it is in the nose -- which receptors -- that allows animals to do this.

"In looking at fruit flies, we have found that, contrary to our expectation, unfamiliar odours, such as from explosives, were not only recognised but broadly recognised with the same accuracy as odours more relevant to a fly's behaviour."

Professor Nowotny and his collaborators recorded how 20 different receptor neurons in fruit flies responded to an ecologically relevant set of 36 chemicals related to wine (the 'wine set') and an ecologically irrelevant set of 35 chemicals related to hazardous materials, such as those found in drugs, combustion products and the headspace of explosives (the 'industrial set').

By monitoring the 'firing rate' of each neuron, they were able to assess which smells elicited the strongest reactions from the flies. They then used a computer program to simulate the part of the fly's brain used for recognition to show that the receptor responses contained enough information to recognise odours.

Of the wine set, 29 out of the 36 compounds elicited clear excitatory responses in at least one receptor neuron. They were surprised to find, however, that the flies also responded to 21 out of the 35 substances related to drugs and explosives.

Professor Nowotny adds: "The long-term goal of this research direction is to 'recreate' animals' noses for technical applications. As well as the detection of explosives, chemical weapons and drugs, there is a broad array of other possible applications, such as measuring food quality, health (breath analysis), environmental monitoring, and even geological monitoring (volcanoes) and agriculture (detecting pests).

"And, of course, the fly's success in identifying the 'wine set' might prove useful for those in the winemaking industry.

"But it would be quite difficult to recreate the entire nose; even adopting all sensors would be too difficult. One may be able to do five or maybe 10, out of 43 in the fruit fly or hundreds in the dog. So the question is, which 10 should we use and would it work? In this paper we show that it could work with as little as 10 fruit fly receptors and we identify the most likely candidates to use."

Lab Grown Neurons Could Lead Researchers To Better Drugs

Today's post from vectorblog.org (see link below) is somewhat technical but isn't everything you read about stem cell research 'technical'? It's worth reading for neuropathy patients though because it looks at current research across the world which involves 'recreating' nerve cells (neurons) and studying them with a view to creating new drugs designed to target pain signals specifically and that's what we need. Current drugs are prescribed to throw a blanket over the problem and hope that that reduces the strength of the pain signals that so characterise neuropathy symptoms. They often have side-effects as a result, so stem-cell research is clearly the future because then drugs can be developed that target the problem with pinpoint accuracy. It's going to take decades yet but as long as they're going in the right direction, maybe future generations will suffer less than we do.

Modeling pain in a dish: Nociceptors made from skin recreate pain physiology
by Nancy Fliesler on December 12, 2014 
 
Neurons from patients could lead researchers to better drugs for chronic pain. Chronic pain, affecting tens of millions of Americans alone, is debilitating and demoralizing. It has many causes, and in the worst cases, people become “hypersensitized”—their nervous systems fire off pain signals in response to very minor triggers.

There are no good medications to calm these signals, in part because the subjectivity of pain makes it difficult to study, and in part because there haven’t been good research models. Drugs have been tested in animal models and “off the shelf” cell lines, some of them engineered to carry target molecules (such as the ion channels that trigger pain signals). Drug candidates emerging from these studies initially looked promising but haven’t panned out in clinical testing.

“These models don’t tell you what the drug is doing to the whole functioning neuron,” says Elizabeth Buttermore, PhD, a postdoctoral fellow in the F.M. Kirby Neurobiology Center at Boston Children’s Hospital. “They haven’t been holding up.”

Last month in Nature Neuroscience, Buttermore coauthored a report with Brian Wainger, MD, of Boston Children’s and Massachusetts General Hospital, describing a new model that appears to capture pain physiology in a dish, using skin cells as their raw material. Their model, also a technical breakthrough in stem cell research, offers new opportunities to understand how pain is produced and to discover new analgesics.

A nimbler way to make neurons

Labs all over the world are beginning to reprogram skin cells into cells resembling embryonic stem cells, known as induced pluripotent stem (iPS) cells, and transforming those, in turn, to their cell type of choice. But Buttermore, Wainger and colleagues found that they were able to bypass the somewhat cumbersome step of creating iPS cells.

By adding just five signals (namely, transcription factors) to skin cells from mice and from patients with an inherited pain disorder, they were able to create nociceptors—specialized pain-sensing neurons. Two of these signals hadn’t been known before and were found by examining mature nociceptors from mice.

In tests, the lab-created mouse nociceptors closely resembled “natural” neurons. They functioned, responded to different pain triggers and became hypersensitized to pain just like their real-world counterparts. The lab-created human nociceptors still have some hoops to jump through, but by early measures, they appear to “beautifully model” patients’ neuropathies and pain hypersensitivities, says Clifford Woolf, MB, BCh, PhD, senior investigator on the project and director of the Kirby Center.

The nociceptor model is already revealing new aspects of pain physiology and could ultimately provide a much more realistic platform for testing new drugs. Woolf, who also co-leads the Harvard Stem Cell Institute’s Nervous System Diseases Program has already found this to be true for amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS).

The nociceptor project’s success was a long time in coming. The team had first tried to make nociceptors from embryonic stem cells. “We spent three years trying to recapitulate the developmental steps involved, and it turned out to be a total bust,” said Woolf.

But he refused to pull the plug, and the approach that finally worked turns out to be the most expedient and the most clinically relevant: Skin cells can be collected directly from patients, making it easier to model their different kinds of chronic pain—neuropathies caused by genetic mutations, diabetes or even chemotherapy, which can sensitize patients to pain.

“We’re trying to get to clinical trials with more success,” says Buttermore. “Hopefully, we’ll avoid drugs that don’t work.”

http://vectorblog.org/2014/12/modeling-pain-in-a-dish-nociceptors-made-from-skin-recreate-pain-physiology/?utm_campaign=Q1%202015%20Innovation%20Social&utm_medium=social&utm_source=twitter&utm_content=Vector%20Pain%20in%20a%20Dish&sf34613949=1

SPECIALIZED YOGA PROGRAM COULD HELP WOMEN WITH URINARY INCONTINENCE

An ancient form of meditation and exercise could help women who suffer from urinary incontinence, according to a new study from UC San Francisco.

In a study scheduled to be published on April 25, 2014 in Female Pelvic Medicine & Reconstructive Surgery, the official journal of the American Urogynecologic Society, UCSF researchers discovered that a yoga training program, designed to improve pelvic health, can help women gain more control over their urination and avoid accidental urine leakage.

"Yoga is often directed at mindful awareness, increasing relaxation, and relieving anxiety and stress," said first author Alison Huang, MD, assistant professor in the UCSF School of Medicine. "For these reasons, yoga has been directed at a variety of other conditions -- metabolic syndrome or pain syndromes -- but there's also a reason to think that it could help for incontinence as well."

Huang and her colleagues recruited 20 women from the Bay Area who were 40 years and older and who suffered from urinary incontinence on a daily basis. Half were randomly assigned to take part in a six-week yoga therapy program and the other half were not. The women who took part in the yoga program experienced an overall 70 percent improvement -- or reduction -- in the frequency of their urine leakage compared to the baseline. The control group -- or the group that did not start yoga therapy -- only had 13 percent improvement. Most of the observed improvement in incontinence was in stress incontinence, or urine leakage brought on by activities that increase abdominal pressure such as coughing, sneezing, and bending over.

Huang and her colleagues believe that yoga can improve urinary incontinence through more than one mechanism. Because incontinence is associated with anxiety and depression, women suffering from incontinence may benefit from yoga's emphasis on mindful meditation and relaxation. But regular practice of yoga may also help women strengthen the muscles of the pelvic floor that support the bladder and protect against incontinence.

"We thought this would be a good opportunity for women to use yoga to become more aware of and have more control over their pelvic floor muscles," Huang said.

Approximately 25 million adults in America suffer from some form of urinary incontinence, according to the National Association for Continence. Up to 80 percent of them are women. Urinary incontinence becomes more common as women age, although many younger women also suffer from it.

"We specifically developed a yoga therapy program that would be safe for older women, including women with minor mobility limitations," Huang said. "So we were partially assessing safety of this program for older women who are at highest risk for having incontinence in the first place."

Not all types of yoga may help with urinary incontinence. The yoga program used in the study was specially designed with input from yoga consultants Leslie Howard and Judith Hanson Lasater, who have experience teaching women to practice yoga in ways that will improve their pelvic health. Still Huang and her colleagues believe that many women in the community can be taught to preserve pelvic muscle strength and prevent incontinence.

"It would be a way for women to gain more control over their pelvic floor muscles without having to go through traditional costly and time-intensive rehabilitation therapy," Huang said.

Men were not included in this study because urinary incontinence in men is often related to problems related to the prostate, which may be less likely to improve with yoga. Huang and her colleagues hope to eventually build on this study and double the length of the study to 12 weeks.

PSORIASIS COULD LEAD TO HIGH BP

Patients with severe psoriasis - a common skin disease - are more likely to have uncontrolled hypertension, found a study.

The researchers defined uncontrolled hypertension as blood pressure measured to be at least 140/90 mm Hg.

Additional findings indicated that there is a significant dose-response relationship, meaning that the likelihood of uncontrolled hypertension increases with greater psoriasis severity.

The patients with the highest risk of having uncontrolled blood pressure, are those with moderate to severe psoriasis, which is defined as having at least three percent of one's body surface affected by the disease, the findings showed.

"To our knowledge, ours is the first study to evaluate the effect of objectively determined psoriasis severity on blood pressure control," said co-first author on the study Junko Takeshita from the University of Pennsylvania in the US.

The researchers examined data from a random sample of psoriasis patients included in The Health Improvement Network (THIN), an electronic medical database based in Britain.

"Over the last several years, studies have shown that psoriasis, specifically severe psoriasis, is an independent risk factor for a variety of comorbidities, putting patients suffering with this common skin disease at an increased risk of other conditions such as heart attack and stroke," Takeshita added.

"Knowing that psoriasis is tied to other health conditions, it's vital that we have a better understanding of the systemic effects it has on other areas of the body so that we can more closely monitor these patients and provide better and preventative care" Takeshita concluded.

The findings appeared in the journal JAMA Dermatology.

NEW INFORMATION ABOUT HOW NEURONS ACT COULD LEAD TO BRAIN DISORDER ADVANCEMENTS

Neurons are electrically charged cells, located in the nervous system, that interpret and transmit information using electrical and chemical signals. Now, researchers at the University of Missouri have determined that individual neurons can react differently to electrical signals at the molecular level and in different ways -- even among neurons of the same type. This variability may be important in discovering underlying problems associated with brain disorders and neural diseases such as epilepsy.

"Genetic mutations found in neurological disorders create imbalances in the inward and outward flow of electrical current through cells," said David Schulz, associate professor in the Division of Biological Sciences in the College of Arts and Science and a researcher in the Interdisciplinary Neuroscience Program at MU. "Often, neurons react to electrical signals, or voltage, and compensate by altering their own electrical outputs. The variability in these imbalances, even among multiple cells of the same kind within the brain, is one of the major problems scientists face when trying to design therapeutics for disorders like epilepsy. Seizures in individuals can be caused by different imbalances -- therefore getting to the root of how neurons act individually makes our studies important."

Schulz and his team previously proved that two identical neurons can reach the same electrical activity in different ways. In his new study, Schulz hypothesized that neurons might use the cell's genetic code, or its messenger RNA (mRNA), to "fine tune" the production of proteins, helping individual cells react accordingly.

Using clusters of neurons obtained from Jonah crabs, Schulz and his team experimentally altered electrical input and output in the neurons and measured the messenger RNA (mRNA) levels found within the cells. Invertebrates like crabs are useful in neuroscience research because their neurons are simple enough to observe and study, but advanced enough that they can be "scaled up" to apply to higher organisms, Schulz said.

They found that when normal patterns of stimulation were maintained, cells engaged the correct ratios of mRNA to produce the proteins needed to help keep electrical impulses in order; however, when normal patterns of activity were not maintained, this fundamentally changed the cells at the molecular level.

"We were the first to show that the correct ratios of mRNAs are actively maintained by the actual activity or voltage of the cell, and not chemical feedback," Schulz said. "These results represent a novel aspect of regulation that might be useful for developing therapeutics for neuronal disorders later."

Schulz' study, "Activity-dependent feedback regulates correlated ion channel mRNA levels in single identified motor neurons," was published in the August 18^th edition ofCurrent Biology.

ORGANIC ELECTRONICS COULD LEAD TO CHEAP WEARABLE MEDICAL SENSORS

Future fitness trackers could soon add blood-oxygen levels to the list of vital signs measured with new technology developed by engineers at UC Berkeley.

"There are various pulse oximeters already on the market that measure pulse rate and blood-oxygen saturation levels, but those devices use rigid conventional electronics, and they are usually fixed to the fingers or earlobe," said Ana Arias, an associate professor of electrical engineering and computer sciences and head of the UC Berkeley team that is developing a new organic optoelectronic sensor.

By switching from silicon to an organic, or carbon-based, design, the researchers were able to create a device that could ultimately be thin, cheap and flexible enough to be slapped on like a Band-Aid during that jog around the track or hike up the hill.

The engineers put the new prototype up against a conventional pulse oximeter and found that the pulse and oxygen readings were just as accurate.

The research team reported its findings in the journal Nature Communications.

Giving silicon a run for its money

A conventional pulse oximeter typically uses light-emitting diodes (LEDs) to send red and infrared light through a fingertip or earlobe. Sensors detect how much light makes it through to the other side. Bright, oxygen-rich blood absorbs more infrared light, while the darker hues of oxygen-poor blood absorb more red light. The ratio of the two wavelengths reveals how much oxygen is in the blood.

For the organic sensors, Arias and her team of graduate students -- Claire Lochner, Yasser Khan and Adrien Pierre -- used red and green light, which yield comparable differences to red and infrared when it comes to distinguishing high and low levels of oxygen in the blood.

Using a solution-based processing system, the researchers deposited the green and red organic LEDs and the translucent light detectors onto a flexible piece of plastic. By detecting the pattern of fresh arterial blood flow, the device can calculate a pulse.

"We showed that if you take measurements with different wavelengths, it works, and if you use unconventional semiconductors, it works," said Arias. "Because organic electronics are flexible, they can easily conform to the body."

Arias added that because the components of conventional oximeters are relatively expensive, healthcare providers will choose to disinfect them if they become contaminated. In contrast, "organic electronics are cheap enough that they are disposable like a Band-Aid after use," she said.